The apical terminus - an historical battle that challenges contemporary applications

– The complexities of apical anatomy: choice of treatment tactics;

– Understanding of root canals: historical aspects;

– The result of endodontic treatment: factors;

– Biological aspects of root canal treatment;

– Healing of periapical tissues: conditions;

– Protrusion of gutta-percha for the apex: tactics;

– Basic principles of root canal treatment;

– Apical "barbarians" and "pulpophiles": differences in concepts;

– The concept of apical patency: significance for the outcome of treatment;

– Canal length:

- Criteria for determining,

- Radiological parameters,

- Apexlocator application.

– Overfill and flush fill: advantages and disadvantages;

– Types of periapical healing;

– Tissue response to the filling materials;

– "Cement canals": the concept and its meaning.